{"schema":"pubphys.bundle/1","record":{"author":{"account_ref":null,"orcid":null},"builds_on":[],"content_schema":"pubphys.content.revision/1","content_sha256":"4c08f4eb56cf3a916fe6e1b1c05f45f966713f0ebf9dd1de597866582c316e20","created":"2026-10-03T07:18:05Z","files":[],"origin":{"assisted_by":[],"kind":"seed"},"parents":["5475cf5dc5b1a72283d26dc95dc6e00d7ea4e00096a7c6492e409a1816eeb011"],"salt":"3f757ac51dbff1d2594f9e39d6d795f1e1b6c0f80e699480cdfd27c3bfcb6c5c","schema":"pubphys.record/2","site":"pubphys.com","target":null,"type":"revision"},"content":{"answer_type":"mechanism","assisted_by":[],"external_id":"hep.flavor-puzzle.yukawa-hierarchy","kind":"phenomenon","literature_status":"open","n":"1","parents":[],"plain":"The top quark is about 340000 times heavier than the electron, and quark mixing is small while neutrino mixing is large. No theory predicts these numbers.","posed_since":"","precise":"The SM Yukawa couplings span $y_e \\sim 3e-6$ to $y_t \\sim 1$, CKM angles are small ($\\theta_C \\sim 0.23$, |V_ub| ~ 4e-3) while PMNS angles are large ($\\theta_{12} \\sim 34\\,\\mathrm{deg}$, $\\theta_{23} \\sim 45\\,\\mathrm{deg}$). An answer is a mechanism (Froggatt-Nielsen charges, modular or discrete flavor symmetries, extra-dimensional localization, partial compositeness) that predicts these values with fewer parameters than it explains.","problem_ref":null,"references":"","settled_by":"A model with fewer free parameters than observables whose extra predictions (mixing sum rules, flavor-violating rates, new states) are confirmed.","status_note":"","title":"What determines the hierarchy of quark and lepton 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